The Reformed Olive Press

When the Gods Hardened Hearts: An Ancient Near Eastern Motif and Its Biblical Twist One of the more puzzling biblical themes is God “hardening hearts,” most famously Pharaoh’s in the book of Exodus. To modern readers, this can sound unfair—why would God deliberately make someone stubborn only to punish them afterward? But when set against the backdrop of Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) literature, the idea of gods hardening, darkening, or confusing human hearts was a common motif. The Bible is not unique in this imagery, though it reshapes it in a distinct covenantal way. Hard Hearts in Egypt In Egyptian wisdom literature, the “heart” was the seat of thought and will. Gods could guide or mislead it depending on destiny. The Instruction of Merikare states: “He whom the god guides cannot go wrong. But he whom he misleads cannot find the right way; he leads him to confusion.” Similarly, the Book of the Dead shows the heart as something that could betray its owner under divine influence. Pharao...

Did the Pentateuch Get Tampered With? Understanding Textual Editing in the Old Testament When people first hear that the Pentateuch—the first five books of the Bible—was edited or compiled over time, it can sound like the text was “tampered with” in a negative sense. But modern scholarship and a careful reading of Scripture reveal a more nuanced picture. Multiple Sources, One Covenant Scholars widely agree that the Pentateuch is a composite work. It combines multiple sources, traditions, and authors over centuries, often labeled J, E, D, and P. These sources reflect different perspectives, historical contexts, and theological emphases. For example, the two creation accounts in Genesis 1 and 2 show stylistic and thematic differences, suggesting distinct traditions woven together by editors. Editing and Transmission Ancient scribes were not careless—they copied, clarified, and sometimes harmonized texts to preserve them. Manuscripts like the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Septuagint, and the Sama...

J ohn 14 Through the Lens of Jewish Apocalyptic Literature Through the lens of Jewish apocalyptic literature and its Ancient Near Eastern backdrop, John 14 should not be read as a blueprint of heavenly architecture but as a declaration of covenantal belonging. Jesus takes the imagery of temples and palaces—well known to Israel and her neighbors—and reshapes it to reveal a deeper reality: God’s dwelling-presence is being prepared for His people.  John 14:1 – “Do not let your hearts be troubled. You believe in God; believe also in me.” Under persecution or social upheaval, Jesus’ reassurance echoes the genre’s core function: to comfort the oppressed by affirming that God’s plan is unfolding and trust is required despite appearances. John 14:2–3 – “In my Father’s house are many rooms; if it were not so, would I have told you that I am going there to prepare a place for you? And if I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again and take you to myself, that where I am you may be al...

The Ancient Near East Views of Death and Hope When Jesus debated the Sadducees about the resurrection in Matthew 22:32, he reframed the discussion around covenant and belonging: “I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob. He is not the God of the dead but of the living.” For Jesus, the patriarchs are not “alive” because they exist in a ghostly realm, but because their covenant with God endures. God’s promises do not dissolve at death. To belong to Him is to be held in an everlasting relationship that transcends the grave. This covenantal lens challenges both Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) and Greek assumptions about the afterlife. ANE Views of the Dead In Mesopotamia, Ugarit, and Egypt, the dead continued in a shadowy existence sustained by the living: Mesopotamia: The dead relied on food and drink offerings. If forgotten, they languished or “died again.” Egypt: Names and rituals sustained the dead. Inscriptions pleaded, “Say my name so that I may live.” Ugarit: Ances...

T he Mini-Apocalypse at the Cross: Rethinking Matthew 27:50–53 Matthew’s Gospel doesn’t just tell the story of Jesus’ death in plain historical terms. It embeds it within the vivid, symbolic language of Jewish apocalyptic literature. When we read Matthew 27:50–53 through that lens, the crucifixion becomes more than a tragic execution—it becomes a cosmic event that signals the collapse of the old order and the birth of the new. Here’s the passage: “And Jesus cried out again with a loud voice and yielded up his spirit. And behold, the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top to bottom. And the earth shook, and the rocks were split. The tombs also were opened. And many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised, and coming out of the tombs after his resurrection they went into the holy city and appeared to many.” (Matthew 27:50–53) Cosmic Signs: The Language of Apocalyptic In Jewish apocalyptic writings like Daniel, 1 Enoch, and 2 Baruch, cosmic disturbances—earthquake...

How Many “Jesuses” Were There? Composite Figures of Christ in the First Century When people think of Jesus of Nazareth, they often imagine him as a singular, unique figure in history. Yet, when we look closely at the first century through Jewish and Roman sources, a surprising picture emerges: the Jesus of the Gospels may share traits with multiple figures of his time, and the name itself was far from rare. Understanding this context not only grounds the Gospels in their historical world but also helps us see why Jesus’ memory was both distinctive and yet part of a wider stream of Jewish hopes and movements. Composite Figures Behind the Gospel Jesus The first century was filled with prophets, healers, revolutionaries, and martyrs. Some of them resemble aspects of the Jesus described in the New Testament. Historians point to figures such as: Hanina ben Dosa, a Galilean healer remembered in rabbinic stories for miracles. The Egyptian prophet, who promised signs of deliverance on the Moun...